Schools of historical thought, methodology debates, and the philosophy of history. Covers the major historiographical traditions (Annales, Marxist, feminist, postcolonial, subaltern, world-systems), their methodological commitments, their contributions and limitations, and the enduring debates about objectivity, narrative, and the nature of historical knowledge. Use when evaluating how different historians approach the same subject, understanding why historical interpretations change over time, or assessing the theoretical framework underlying a historical argument.